Chapter 2. The Meaning of Gnosis and the Extent of the Gnostic
Movement
(a) SPIRITUAL CLIMATE OF THE ERA
At
the beginning of the Christian era and progressively throughout the two
following centuries, the eastern Mediterranean world was in profound spiritual
ferment. The genesis of Christianity itself and the response to its message are
evidence of this ferment, but they do not stand alone. With regard to the
environment in which Christianity originated, the recently discovered Dead Sea Scrolls
have added powerful support to the view, reasonably certain
before, that Palestine was seething with eschatological (i.e.,
salvational) movements and that the emergence of the Christian sect was anything
but an isolated incident. In the thought of the manifold gnostic sects which
soon began to spring up everywhere in the wake of the Christian expansion, the
spiritual crisis of the age found its boldest expression and, as it were, its
extremist representation. The abstruseness of their speculations, in part
intentionally provocative, does not diminish but rather enhances their symbolic
representative-ness for the thought of an agitated period. Before narrowing
down our investigation to the particular phenomenon of Gnosticism, we must
briefly indicate the main features that characterize this contemporary thought
as a whole.
First,
all the phenomena which we noted in connection with the "oriental
wave" are of a decidedly religious nature; and this, as we have repeatedly
stated, is the prominent characteristic of the second phase of Hellenistic
culture in general. Second, all these
currents have in some way to do with salvation: the general religion
of the period is a religion of salvation. Third, all of them exhibit an
exceedingly transcendent (i.e., transmundane)
conception of God and in connection with it an equally transcendent and
other-worldly idea of the goal of salvation. Finally, they maintain a radical dualism
of realms of being—God and the world, spirit and matter, soul and body, light
and darkness, good and evil, life and death—and consequently an
extreme polarization of existence affecting not
only man but reality as a whole: the general religion of the
period is a dualistic transcendent
religion of salvation.
(b) THE NAME "GNOSTICISM"
Turning
to Gnosticism in particular, we ask what the name means, where the movement
originated, and what literary evidence it left. The name "Gnosticism,"
which has come to serve as a collective heading for a manifoldness of sectarian
doctrines appearing
within and around Christianity during its critical first
centuries, is derived from gnosis,
the Greek word for "knowledge." The emphasis on knowledge
as the means for the attainment of salvation, or even as the form of salvation
itself, and the claim to the possession of this knowledge in one's own articulate
doctrine, are common features of the numerous sects in which the gnostic
movement historically expressed itself. Actually there were only a few groups whose
members expressly called themselves Gnostics,
"the Knowing
ones"; but already Irenaeus, in the title of his work, used
the name "gnosis" (with the addition "falsely so called")
to cover all those sects that shared with them that emphasis and certain other
characteristics. In this sense we can speak of gnostic schools, sects, and cults,
of gnostic writings and teachings, of gnostic myths and speculations, even of
gnostic religion in general.
In
following the example of the ancient authors who first extended the name beyond
the self-styling of a few groups, we are not obliged to stop where their
knowledge or polemical interest did and may treat the term as a class-concept,
to be applied wherever
the defining properties are present. Thus the extent of the
gnostic area can be taken as narrower or broader, depending on the criterion
employed. The Church Fathers considered Gnosticism as essentially a Christian
heresy and confined their reports and refutations to systems which either had
sprouted already from the soil of Christianity (e.g., the Valentinian
system), or had somehow added and adapted the figure of Christ to their
otherwise heterogeneous teaching (e.g., that of the Phrygian Naassenes), or else through a common Jewish background were
close enough to be felt as competing with and distorting the Christian message
(e.g., that of Simon Magus). Modern research has progressively broadened this traditional
range by arguing the existence of a pre-Christian Jewish
and a Hellenistic pagan Gnosticism, and by making known the Mandaean sources, the most striking example of Eastern
Gnosticism outside the Hellenistic orbit, and other new material. Finally, if
we take as a criterion not so much the special motif of "knowledge" as
the dualistic-anticosmic spirit in general, the
religion of Mani, too, must be classified as gnostic.
(c) THE ORIGIN OF GNOSTICISM
Asking next the question where or from
what historical tradition Gnosticism originated, we are confronted with an old
crux of historical speculation: the most conflicting theories have been advanced
in the course of time and are still in the field today. The early Church
Fathers, and independently of them Plotinus, emphasized the influence upon a
Christian thinking not yet firmly consolidated of Plato and of misunderstood
Hellenic philosophy in general.
Modern scholars have advanced in turn
Hellenic, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Iranian origins and every possible
combination of these with one another and with Jewish and Christian elements.
Since in the material of its representation Gnosticism actually is a product
of syncretism, each of these theories can be supported from
the sources and none of them is satisfactory alone; but neither is the combination
of all of them, which would make Gnosticism out to be a mere mosaic of these
elements and so miss its autonomous essence.
On the whole, however, the oriental
thesis has an edge over the Hellenic one, once the meaning of the term
"knowledge" is freed from the misleading associations suggested by
the tradition of classical philosophy. The recent Coptic discoveries in Upper
Egypt (see below, sec. e) are said to underline the share of a heterodox occultist
Judaism, though judgment must be reserved pending the translation of the vast
body of material.1 Some connection of
Gnosticism with the beginnings of the Cabbala has in any case to be assumed,
whatever the order of cause and effect. The violently anti-Jewish bias of the
more prominent gnostic systems is by itself not incompatible with Jewish heretical
origin at some distance. Independently, however, of who the
first Gnostics were and what the main religious traditions drawn into the
movement and suffering arbitrary reinterpretation at its
ha
nds, the movement itself transcended ethnic and denominational
boundaries, and its spiritual principle was new. The Jewish strain in Gnosticism
is as little the orthodox Jewish as the Babylonian is the orthodox Babylonian,
the Iranian the orthodox Iranian, and so on. Regarding the case made out for a
preponderance of Hellenic influence, much depends on
how the crucial concept of "knowledge" is to be understood in this
context.
1See Chapt. 12.
(d) THE NATURE OF GNOSTIC
"KNOWLEDGE"
"Knowledge" is by itself a
purely formal term and does not specify what is to be known; neither does it
specify the psychological manner and subjective significance of possessing
knowledge or the ways in which it is acquired. As for what the knowledge is about,
the associations of the term most familiar to the classically
trained reader point to rational objects, and accordingly to
natural reason as the organ for acquiring and possessing knowledge. In the
gnostic context, however, "knowledge" has an emphatically religious
or supranatural meaning and refers to objects which
we nowadays should call those of faith rather than of reason. Now
although the relation between faith and knowledge (pistis
and gnosis) became a major issue in
the Church between the gnostic heretics and the orthodox, this was not the
modern issue between faith and reason with which we are familiar; for the
"knowledge” of the Gnostics with which simple Christian faith was
contrasted
whether in praise or blame was not of the rational kind. Gnosis meant
pre-eminently knowledge of God, and from what we have said about the radical
transcendence of the deity it follows that "knowledge of God" is the
knowledge of something naturally un-
knowable and therefore itself not a natural condition. Its objects include
everything that belongs to the divine realm of being, namely, the order and
history of the upper worlds, and what is to issue from it, namely, the
salvation of man. With objects of this
kind, knowledge as a mental act is vastly different from the
rational
cognition of philosophy. On the one hand it is closely bound up with revelationary experience, so that reception of the truth
either through sacred and secret lore or
through inner illumination replaces rational argument and theory
(though this extra-rational basis may then provide scope for independent
speculation); on the other
hand, being concerned with the secrets of salvation,
"knowledge" is not just theoretical information about certain things
but is itself, as a modification of the human condition, charged with performing
a function in the bringing about of salvation. Thus gnostic "knowledge"
has an eminently practical aspect. The ultimate "object" of gnosis is
God: its event in the soul transforms the knower himself by making him a
partaker in the divine existence (which means more than assimilating him to the
divine essence). Thus in the more radical systems like the Valentinian
the "knowledge" is not only an instrument of salvation but itself the
very form in which
the goal of salvation, i.e., ultimate perfection, is possessed.
In these cases knowledge and the attainment of the known by the soul are claimed
to coincide—the claim of all true mysticism. It is, to be sure, also the claim
of Greek theoria,
but in a different sense. There, the object of knowledge is the universal, and
the cognitive relation is "optical," i.e., an analogue of the visual
relation to objective form that remains unaffected by the relation. Gnostic
"knowledge" is about the particular (for the transcendent deity is
still a particular), and the relation of knowing is mutual, i.e., a being known
at the same time, and involving active self-divulgence on the part of the
"known." There, the mind is "informed" with the forms it
beholds and while it beholds (thinks) them: here, the subject is
"transformed" (from "soul" to "spirit") by the union
with a reality that in truth is itself the supreme subject in the situation and
strictly speaking never an object at all.
These
few preliminary remarks are sufficient to delimitate the gnostic type of
"knowledge" from the idea of rational theory in terms of which Greek
philosophy ha
d developed the concept. Yet the suggestions of the term
"knowledge" as such, reinforced by the fact that Gnosticism produced
real thinkers who unfolded the con-
tents of the secret "knowledge"
in elaborate doctrinal systems and used abstract concepts, often with
philosophical antecedents, in their exposition, have favored a strong tendency
among theologians and historians to explain Gnosticism by the impact of the
Greek ideal of knowledge on the new religious forces which came to the
fore at that time, and more especially on the infancy of
Christian thought. The genuine theoretical aspirations revealed in the higher type
of gnostic speculation, bearing out as it seemed the testimony of the early
Church Fathers, led Adolf von Harnack to his famous
formulation that Gnosticism was "the acute Hellenization of Christianity,"
while the slower and more measured evolution of orthodox theology was to be
regarded as its "chronic Hellenization." The medical analogy was not
meant to designate Hellenization as such
as a disease; but the "acute"
stage which provoked the reaction of the healthy forces in the organism of the
Church was understood as the hasty and therefore disruptive anticipation of the
same process that in its more cautious and less spectacular form led to the incorporation
of those aspects of the Greek heritage from which Christian thought could truly
benefit. Perspicacious as this diagnosis is, as a definition of Gnosticism it
falls short in both the terms
that make up the formula, "Hellenization" and
"Christianity." It treats Gnosticism as a solely Christian
phenomenon, whereas subsequent research has established its wider range; and it
gives way to the Hellenic appearance of gnostic conceptualization and of the concept
of
gnosis itself, which in fact only thinly disguises a heterogeneous
spiritual substance. It is
the genuineness, i.e., the underivative
nature, of this substance that defeats all attempts at derivation that concern
more than the outer shell of expression. About the idea of
"knowledge," the great watchword of the movement, it must be emphasized
that its objectification in articulate systems of thought concerning God and
the universe was an autonomous achievement of this substance, not its
subjection to a borrowed scheme of theory. The combination of the practical,
salvational concept of knowledge with its theoretical satisfaction in quasi-rational
systems of thought—the rationalization of the supranatural—was
typical of the higher forms of Gnosticism and gave rise to a kind of speculation
previously unknown but never afterwards to disappear from religious
thought.
Yet
Harnack's half-truth reflects a fact which is almost
as integral to the destiny of the new oriental wisdom as its original substance:
the fact called by Spengler "pseudomorphosis"
to which we have alluded before. If a different crystalline substance happens
to fill the hollow left in a geological layer by crystals that have disintegrated,
it is forced by the mold to take on a crystal form not its own and without
chemical analysis will mislead the observer into taking it for a crystal of the
original kind. Such a formation is called in mineralogy a "pseudomorphosis." With the inspired intuition that
distinguished him, amateur as he was in the field, Spengler discerned a similar
situation in the period under view and argued that the recognition of it must
govern the understanding of all its utterances. According to him,
disintegrating Greek thought is the older crystal of the simile, Eastern thought
the new substance forced into its mold. Leaving aside the wider historical
vista within which Spengler places his observation, it is a brilliant
contribution to the diagnosis of a historical situation and if used with
discrimination can greatly help our understanding.
From Hans Jonas, The Gnostic Religion, 31-37.